English Grammar — Class 11 & 12

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📘 Class 9 & 10 Grammar Cards

Parts of Speech · Tenses · Voice · Narration · Clauses · Transformation · Degrees · Conditionals

Tenses Voice Narration Modal Auxiliaries Clauses Transformation Articles Prepositions Conjunctions Determiners Punctuation Word Forms 🌸 Figures of Speech ✍️ Writing Skills

⏰ 1. Tenses Class 11 & 12

All 12 Tenses — Structure & Examples

Tense	Structure	Example
Simple Present	Subject + V1 (s/es)	She reads books.
Present Continuous	Subject + is/am/are + V-ing	She is reading a book.
Present Perfect	Subject + has/have + V3	She has read the book.
Present Perfect Continuous	Subject + has/have + been + V-ing	She has been reading for an hour.
Simple Past	Subject + V2	She read the book.
Past Continuous	Subject + was/were + V-ing	She was reading the book.
Past Perfect	Subject + had + V3	She had read the book.
Past Perfect Continuous	Subject + had been + V-ing	She had been reading for hours.
Simple Future	Subject + will/shall + V1	She will read the book.
Future Continuous	Subject + will be + V-ing	She will be reading at 8 pm.
Future Perfect	Subject + will have + V3	She will have read by evening.
Future Perfect Continuous	Subject + will have been + V-ing	She will have been reading for 2 hours.

⭐ Time words: Yesterday/ago/last = Past | Since/for/already/just/yet = Perfect | Tomorrow/next = Future | Now/at present = Continuous

🔄 2. Active and Passive Voice Class 11 & 12

Rules for Changing Voice

Active: Subject + Verb + Object
Passive: Object + be-verb + V3 + by + Subject

Steps:
1. Object of active → Subject of passive
2. Subject of active → goes after "by" at the end
3. Change main verb → V3 (past participle)
4. Add appropriate form of "be" (is/am/are/was/were/has been/have been/will be etc.)

Tense	Active	Passive
Simple Present	She writes a letter.	A letter is written by her.
Simple Past	She wrote a letter.	A letter was written by her.
Simple Future	She will write a letter.	A letter will be written by her.
Present Continuous	She is writing a letter.	A letter is being written by her.
Past Continuous	She was writing a letter.	A letter was being written by her.
Present Perfect	She has written a letter.	A letter has been written by her.
Past Perfect	She had written a letter.	A letter had been written by her.

⭐ Pronoun changes: I→me, he→him, she→her, they→them, we→us, you→you | For subject in passive: me→I, him→he, her→she, them→they, us→we

Imperative: "Open the door." → "Let the door be opened."
Question: "Did she finish the work?" → "Was the work finished by her?"
If no object: Cannot be changed to passive. (e.g., "She laughed.")

🗣️ 3. Direct and Indirect Speech (Narration) Class 11 & 12

Rules for Changing Narration

Tense Changes (Backshift):
Simple Present → Simple Past
Present Continuous → Past Continuous
Present Perfect → Past Perfect
Simple Past → Past Perfect
Past Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous
will → would | can → could | may → might | shall → should

Reporting Verb	Direct	Indirect
said / told	"I am happy," he said.	He said that he was happy.
asked (question)	"Are you well?" she asked.	She asked if/whether he was well.
asked (wh-question)	"Where do you live?" he asked.	He asked where he lived.
ordered/commanded	"Sit down!" the teacher said.	The teacher ordered them to sit down.
requested	"Please help me," she said.	She requested him to help her.
advised	"You should study hard," he said.	He advised me to study hard.
exclaimed (joy)	"What a beautiful day!" she said.	She exclaimed with joy that it was a very beautiful day.
exclaimed (sorrow)	"Alas! I have failed," he said.	He exclaimed with sorrow that he had failed.

⚙️ 4. Modal Auxiliaries Class 11 & 12

Modals and Their Uses

Modal	Use	Example
can	Ability (present)	She can swim well.
could	Ability (past) / Polite request	He could run fast. / Could you help me?
may	Permission / Possibility	May I come in? / It may rain today.
might	Slight possibility	She might come tomorrow.
will	Future / Willingness	I will help you.
would	Polite request / Past habit	Would you pass the salt? / He would go for walks.
shall	Future (I/we) / Suggestion	I shall return. / Shall we dance?
should	Advice / Duty / Expectation	You should study hard.
must	Strong obligation / Certainty	You must obey rules. / He must be tired.
ought to	Moral obligation	We ought to respect elders.
used to	Past habit (no longer)	He used to play cricket.
need	Necessity (negative/questions)	You need not come today.
dare	Courage (negative/questions)	He dare not speak the truth.

🔗 5. Clauses Class 11 & 12

Types of Clauses

Main/Independent Clause: Complete thought, can stand alone. Example: She went home.
Subordinate/Dependent Clause: Cannot stand alone, depends on main clause.

Types of Subordinate Clauses

Type	Function	Conjunctions	Example
Noun Clause	Acts as noun (subject/object)	that, what, whether, if	I know that he is honest.
Adjective Clause	Modifies a noun	who, whom, which, that, whose	The boy who won the race is my friend.
Adverb Clause of Time	Tells when	when, while, after, before, since, until	She left when I arrived.
Adverb Clause of Condition	Tells condition	if, unless, provided that	I will come if you invite me.
Adverb Clause of Cause	Tells reason	because, since, as	He failed because he did not study.
Adverb Clause of Result	Tells result	so...that, such...that	She was so tired that she slept at once.
Adverb Clause of Comparison	Compares	as...as, than	She is taller than I am.

✂️ 6. Transformation of Sentences Class 11 & 12

Types of Transformation

1. Affirmative ↔ Negative
Remove/add "not" and change verb if needed.
Aff: Everyone was present. → Neg: No one was absent.
Aff: She is always late. → Neg: She is never on time.

2. Assertive ↔ Interrogative
Assert: He is a good student. → Inter: Is he not a good student? (or) Isn't he a good student?
Assert: Nobody can deny this. → Inter: Who can deny this?

3. Simple ↔ Compound ↔ Complex
Simple: Despite being tired, she worked hard.
Compound: She was tired but she worked hard.
Complex: Although she was tired, she worked hard.

4. Degrees of Comparison
Positive: No other boy in the class is as tall as Ravi.
Comparative: Ravi is taller than any other boy in the class.
Superlative: Ravi is the tallest boy in the class.

5. Exclamatory ↔ Assertive
Exclamatory: What a beautiful flower this is!
Assertive: This is a very beautiful flower.
Exclamatory: How clever she is!
Assertive: She is very clever.

6. Too...to → So...that
He is too weak to walk. → He is so weak that he cannot walk.
She is too young to drive. → She is so young that she cannot drive.

📝 7. Articles (a, an, the) Class 11 & 12

Rules for Using Articles

Article	Use	Example
a	Before consonant sound, first mention, one of many	a dog, a university, a European
an	Before vowel sound	an apple, an hour, an honest man, an MBA
the	Specific/known thing; superlatives; unique things; names of seas/rivers/ranges	the Sun, the best, the Himalayas, the Amazon

No article used with:
• Names of people, cities, countries (generally): India, Rahul, Mumbai
• Languages: English, Hindi, French
• Sports: He plays cricket.
• Meals (generally): We have breakfast at 8.
• Abstract nouns used generally: Knowledge is power.

Tricky cases:
a uniform (starts with 'yu' sound) | an hour (h is silent) | an MLA (M sounds like 'em')
the United States | the Netherlands | the UAE (countries with 'United/States/Republic' → use the)

📍 8. Prepositions Class 11 & 12

Types and Use of Prepositions

Type	Prepositions	Example
Place/Position	in, on, at, under, over, above, below, beside, between, among, behind, in front of	The book is on the table.
Time	at (time), on (day/date), in (month/year/period), since, for, during, before, after, until	I wake up at 6. School is on Monday. Born in 2005.
Direction	to, into, onto, towards, from, through, across, along, up, down	She walked towards the door.
Manner/Cause	by, with, of, about, for, due to, because of, owing to	He died of fever. She came by bus.

🔗 9. Conjunctions Class 11 & 12

Types of Conjunctions

Type	Examples	Use
Coordinating	and, but, or, nor, so, yet, for	Joins equal parts: She sings and dances.
Subordinating	because, although, if, when, since, unless, until, while, as, that, though	Joins unequal parts: I will come if you invite me.
Correlative	both...and, either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also, whether...or, as...as	Used in pairs: Either she or her sister will come.

Common mistakes:
❌ Although he was tired, but he worked. → ✅ Although he was tired, he worked. (Don't use 'but' with 'although')
❌ Because he was late, so he missed the bus. → ✅ Because he was late, he missed the bus. (Don't use 'so' with 'because')

🔢 10. Determiners Class 11 & 12

Types of Determiners

Type	Words	Example
Articles	a, an, the	The dog is loyal.
Demonstrative	this, that, these, those	This book is mine.
Possessive	my, your, his, her, its, our, their	Her answer was correct.
Quantifiers	some, any, many, much, few, little, a lot of, enough, all, both, half, several, no	Few students passed.
Numerals	one, two, first, second, double, twice	Three students were absent.
Interrogative	which, what, whose	Which book do you want?
Distributive	each, every, either, neither	Each student got a prize.

few / a few / the few:
few = negative (almost none): Few students came. (bad)
a few = positive (some): A few students came. (good)
the few = specific small group: The few students who came worked hard.

little / a little / the little: Same pattern for uncountable nouns.

✏️ 11. Punctuation Class 11 & 12

Rules for Punctuation

Mark	Use	Example
Full stop (.)	End of sentence; abbreviations	She went home. / Mr. Sharma
Comma (,)	List; pause; after intro phrase; before conjunctions in compound sentences	I bought apples, mangoes, and bananas.
Question mark (?)	Direct question	Where do you live?
Exclamation (!)	Strong feeling, exclamations	What a beautiful day!
Colon (:)	Introduce list/explanation	He has three subjects: Maths, Science, English.
Semicolon (;)	Connect related clauses	She studied hard; she passed.
Apostrophe (')	Possession; contractions	Ravi's book. / don't = do not
Inverted commas ("")	Direct speech; titles; special words	She said, "Come in."
Hyphen (-)	Compound words; word division	well-known, twenty-one
Dash (—)	Strong break; explanation	He had one goal — success.

📖 12. Word Forms / Vocabulary Class 11 & 12

Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs

Noun	Verb	Adjective	Adverb
beauty	beautify	beautiful	beautifully
courage	encourage	courageous	courageously
success	succeed	successful	successfully
knowledge	know	knowledgeable	knowingly
creation	create	creative	creatively
happiness	—	happy	happily
education	educate	educational / educated	educationally
anger	anger	angry	angrily

Prefixes & Suffixes

Common Prefixes:
un- (unhappy, unkind) | dis- (disagree, dishonest) | mis- (misuse, misguide)
re- (redo, rewrite) | pre- (pre-exam, preview) | over- (overconfident, overlook)
under- (underestimate) | im-/in-/ir-/il- (impossible, invisible, irresponsible, illegal)

Common Suffixes:
-ness (kindness, darkness) | -ment (government, movement) | -tion/-sion (education, decision)
-ful (beautiful, peaceful) | -less (careless, hopeless) | -ly (quickly, slowly)
-able/-ible (capable, responsible) | -ise/-ize (realize, organise)

Common Errors — Wrong vs Right

❌ WrongShe is more better than him.

✅ RightShe is better than him.

❌ WrongHe went to buy some furnitures.

✅ RightHe went to buy some furniture. (uncountable)

❌ WrongI am knowing him since years.

✅ RightI have known him for years.

❌ WrongShe told that she was hungry.

✅ RightShe said that she was hungry.

❌ WrongEach of the boys have a book.

✅ RightEach of the boys has a book.

❌ WrongHe is senior than me.

✅ RightHe is senior to me. (Latin comparatives: senior/junior/superior/inferior/prior + to)

❌ WrongBetween you and I, it is wrong.

✅ RightBetween you and me, it is wrong. (use objective pronoun after preposition)

❌ WrongOne should love his country.

✅ RightOne should love one's country.

🌸 13. Figures of Speech Class 11 & 12

Quick Reference — All Figures of Speech

#	Figure	Definition	Example
1	Simile	Comparison using like or as	"Her voice is like music." / "Brave as a lion."
2	Metaphor	Direct comparison — one thing IS another (no like/as)	"Life is a journey." / "Time is money."
3	Personification	Human qualities given to non-human things	"The sun smiled." / "Opportunity knocked."
4	Alliteration	Same initial consonant sound in nearby words	"She sells sea shells." / "Peter Piper picked…"
5	Hyperbole	Deliberate extreme exaggeration for emphasis	"I've told you a million times."
6	Oxymoron	Two contradictory words placed together	"Deafening silence." / "Sweet sorrow."
7	Onomatopoeia	Word imitates the sound it describes	"The bees buzzed." / "The fire crackled."
8	Apostrophe	Addressing an absent person/abstract idea/object	"O Death, where is thy sting?"
9	Irony	Saying opposite of what is meant	"What lovely weather!" (said in a storm)
10	Antithesis	Two contrasting ideas in parallel structure	"To err is human, to forgive divine."
11	Anaphora	Repetition of word/phrase at start of successive clauses	"We shall fight… we shall fight… we shall fight…"
12	Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words	"The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain."
13	Transferred Epithet	Adjective transferred from its real noun to another nearby noun	"He spent a sleepless night." (he is sleepless, not the night)
14	Euphemism	Mild/polite expression replacing a harsh/blunt one	"Passed away" (for died). "Between jobs" (for unemployed).
15	Pun	Play on words — same word used in two senses	"Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana."
16	Synecdoche	A part represents the whole, or the whole represents a part	"All hands on deck." (hands = sailors) / "The pen is mightier than the sword."
17	Metonymy	One word substituted by something closely associated with it	"The Crown decided." (Crown = the king/monarch) / "The pen is mightier than the sword."
18	Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but contains truth	"The child is father of the man." / "More haste, less speed."

📌 Detailed Notes — Advanced Figures (Class 11 & 12)

Synecdoche vs Metonymy:
Synecdoche: A part is used for the whole, or whole for part.
→ "All hands on deck." (hands = whole sailors) | "Give us this day our daily bread." (bread = all food)
Metonymy: A word is replaced by something closely associated with it (not part/whole).
→ "The White House announced…" (White House = US President/govt) | "The pen is mightier than the sword." (pen = writing/ideas, sword = military force)

Paradox vs Oxymoron:
Oxymoron: Two opposite words placed side by side — "deafening silence", "bittersweet".
Paradox: A complete statement/idea that seems contradictory but is deeply true.
→ "The child is father of the man." (the experiences of childhood shape the adult)
→ "I must be cruel only to be kind." (causing pain now to prevent greater pain later)

Irony — Three types for Class 11 & 12:
Verbal Irony: Words mean the opposite of what is literally said. Ex: "Oh great, another Monday."
Dramatic Irony: Audience/reader knows something the character does not. (Common in plays — Shakespeare)
Situational Irony: The outcome is opposite to what was expected. Ex: A fire station burns down.

Extended Metaphor: A metaphor that is developed over several lines or throughout a poem/passage.
Ex: If life is compared to a journey throughout a poem (not just in one line), it is an extended metaphor.

❓ Identify the Figure of Speech — Board Practice

Sentence	Figure of Speech	Reason
"Her smile is like sunshine."	Simile	Comparison using like
"The world is a stage."	Metaphor	Direct comparison, no like/as
"The trees danced in the wind."	Personification	Human action to non-human thing
"She sells sea shells by the seashore."	Alliteration	Repeated 'S' initial sound
"I've told you a million times!"	Hyperbole	Extreme exaggeration
"Deafening silence."	Oxymoron	Two opposite words
"The bees buzzed."	Onomatopoeia	Word imitates sound
"O Death, where is thy sting?"	Apostrophe	Addressing absent Death
"What lovely weather!" (in a storm)	Irony	Meaning opposite to words
"To err is human, to forgive divine."	Antithesis	Contrasting ideas in parallel
"He spent a sleepless night."	Transferred Epithet	Sleepless belongs to him, not the night
"All hands on deck."	Synecdoche	Part (hands) for whole (sailors)
"The Crown has decided."	Metonymy	Crown stands for king/monarch
"The child is father of the man."	Paradox	Contradictory but deeply true

✍️ 14. Writing Skills Class 11 & 12

1. Formal Letter — Format & Types

Types: Letter of complaint · Letter of request · Letter to the editor · Job application · Letter to authority (Municipal officer, Bank, etc.)

            Sender's Address

            Date

            Receiver's Designation & Address

            Subject: Regarding ___________________

            Salutation: Respected Sir / Dear Sir or Madam

            Body (3 paragraphs):

              Para 1 — Purpose / Introduction

              Para 2 — Main content / Details

              Para 3 — What you expect / Request for action

            Closing: Yours faithfully / Yours sincerely

            Signature & Full Name

⭐ Yours faithfully — salutation is "Dear Sir/Madam" (name unknown). Yours sincerely — salutation uses name (Dear Mr. Sharma). Never mix these up in board exams.

Useful phrases:
Opening: "I wish to draw your kind attention to…" / "I am writing to bring to your notice…" / "Through the columns of your esteemed newspaper, I wish to…"
Closing: "I hope you will take prompt action." / "I shall be obliged if you could…" / "Thanking you in anticipation."

2. Report Writing — Class 11 & 12

Key features: Written in third person · past tense · passive voice. Factual. No opinions unless asked. Always has a headline, by-line, dateline and body.

            HEADLINE (Bold, Capitals — summarise event)

            By [Reporter Name] / Our Staff Reporter

            City, Date

            Para 1: What happened? When? Where? Who was involved? (5 W's + H)

            Para 2: Detailed account — key highlights, sequence of events

            Para 3: Quotes from participants / witnesses / officials

            Para 4: Conclusion — outcome, results, future plans

Report language: "The event was inaugurated by…" / "A large number of students participated in…" / "Prizes were distributed by…" / "The programme concluded with a vote of thanks by…" / "According to sources…" / "It was reported that…"

3. Article Writing — Class 11 & 12

Purpose: An article is written for a newspaper, magazine or school journal on a topic of general interest. It may be descriptive, informative, argumentative or narrative.

            Title of the Article

            By [Name]

            Introduction: Hook — quote, question, statistic or startling fact

            Body (2–3 paragraphs): Main points, facts, examples, opinions

            Conclusion: Summary, your view, call to action

⭐ Difference between Essay and Article: An article has a by-line (By [Name]), a title, and a specific audience (readers of a paper/magazine). An essay is more general. Articles may use subheadings. Word limit: 150–200 words.

4. Speech Writing — Class 11 & 12

            Title / Occasion

            Salutation: Respected Principal, dear teachers and my fellow students / Ladies and Gentlemen…

            Good morning everyone. Today I stand before you to speak on the topic "___".

            Body: Organised paragraphs · facts · examples · rhetorical questions · quotes

            Conclusion: "I would like to conclude by saying…" / "Let us all pledge to…"

            Thank you.

Rhetorical devices to use in speeches:
• Rhetorical question: "Have you ever wondered why…?"
• Tricolon (rule of three): "Education liberates, empowers and transforms."
• Direct address: "Friends, let us consider…" / "As you all know…"
• Call to action: "Let us rise, act and change the world."

5. Notice, Poster & Advertisement — Class 11 & 12

Notice: Short official announcement. Third person. Boxed format. No I/we. Contains: Name of org → NOTICE → Date → Title → Body (Who/What/When/Where) → Issuing authority name + designation. Word limit: 50–80 words.

Poster: Visual announcement for a public cause or event. Should be eye-catching. Contains: Catchy headline · Event/message details · Visual description (in exam: describe in words) · Organiser's name. Keep it brief — bullet points are fine.

Advertisement: Classified or display ad. Box it. Contains: Category (WANTED / FOR SALE / LOST & FOUND) · Description · Contact details · Date. Very concise — no articles (a/an/the) where possible, like a telegram. Word limit: 50 words.

6. Essay / Composition — Class 11 & 12

Part	Content	Approx Length
Introduction	Define/introduce topic. Hook with a quote, question or startling fact. State your thesis.	1 paragraph
Body Para 1	First main point — explain with examples, facts, data	1 paragraph
Body Para 2	Second main point — develop with contrast, comparison or deeper analysis	1 paragraph
Body Para 3	Third point or counter-argument (for argumentative essays)	1 paragraph
Conclusion	Summarise key points. Give your final opinion. End powerfully — with a quote or call to action.	1 paragraph

Linking words by function:
Add: Furthermore · Moreover · In addition · Besides · Additionally
Contrast: However · Nevertheless · On the other hand · Although · Despite · In contrast
Cause/Effect: Therefore · Consequently · As a result · Hence · Thus
Example: For instance · For example · To illustrate · Such as · Namely
Conclude: In conclusion · To sum up · Finally · All things considered · To summarise

⭐ Word limit: 250–350 words for Class 11 & 12. Use a variety of sentence structures. Avoid colloquial language. Use formal vocabulary. Paragraphs must be clearly connected.

📋 Writing Skills — Quick Comparison (Class 11 & 12)

Type	Person	Tense	Tone	Word Limit
Formal Letter	1st	Any	Formal, polite	150–200
Report	3rd	Past	Factual, objective	150–200
Article	3rd / 1st	Any	Informative/persuasive	150–200
Speech	1st	Any	Engaging, persuasive	150–200
Notice	3rd	Future/present	Formal, concise	50–80
Poster	—	—	Eye-catching, brief	50–60
Advertisement	Minimal	—	Concise, factual	50
Essay	3rd (mostly)	Any	Formal, analytical	250–350

📋 Grammar at a Glance — Quick Revision

Topic	Class	Key Rule to Remember
Tenses	11 & 12	12 tenses — identify time word, form helping verb + main verb correctly
Voice	11 & 12	Object→Subject, add be+V3, subject→by+object
Narration	11 & 12	Backshift tense, change pronouns + time words, use correct reporting verb
Modal Auxiliaries	11 & 12	Modal + bare infinitive (V1). Each modal has specific meaning.
Clauses	11 & 12	Noun / Adjective / Adverb — identify by what question they answer
Transformation	11 & 12	Aff↔Neg, Simple↔Compound↔Complex, Degrees, too...to↔so...that
Articles	11 & 12	a (consonant sound), an (vowel sound), the (specific/unique)
Prepositions	11 & 12	at/on/in for time; in/on/at for place; learn fixed phrases
Conjunctions	11 & 12	Don't use 'but' with 'although', 'so' with 'because'
Determiners	11 & 12	few/a few/the few; little/a little/the little — meaning changes
Punctuation	11 & 12	Apostrophe for possession/contraction; inverted commas for speech
Word Forms	11 & 12	Noun/Verb/Adjective/Adverb — learn common word families
Figures of Speech	11 & 12	Simile (like/as) · Metaphor (IS) · Personification (human quality) · Oxymoron (opposites) · Synecdoche (part for whole) · Paradox (contradictory truth)
Writing Skills	11 & 12	Formal Letter · Report · Article · Speech · Notice · Poster · Advertisement · Essay — each has a fixed format; memorise person, tense, tone & word limit

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📘 Grammar Class 9 & 10 ✍️ Writing Skills ← Class 11 ← Class 12

English Grammar 📚

📋 Writing Skills — Quick Comparison (Class 11 & 12)

📋 Grammar at a Glance — Quick Revision

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